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Where the paradigm of war applies, the executive dominates in deciding who lives or dies. Justice O’Connor nonetheless claimed in Hamdi (案件名称) that the war on terror does not give the executive a blank check (自由处理权) to do as it pleases in the name of security. If one accepts this premise, then the question becomes how to control the executive’s war power without unduly hampering it. Under a Mathews-style approach, to determine whether due process demands a particular procedural control over targeted killing (ARA), one should: (a) identify the range of legitimate interests that the procedure might protect; (b) assess the degree to which adoption of the procedure actually would protect these interests; and (c) weigh these marginal benefits against the damage the procedure may cause other legitimate interests. Judicial control of targeted killing could increase the accuracy of target selection, reducing the danger of mistaken or illegal destruction of lives, limbs, and property. Independent judges who double-check targeting decisions could catch errors and cause executive officials to avoid making them in the first place. More broadly, judicial control of targeted killing could serve the interests of all people --- targets and non-targets — in blocking the executive from exercising an unaccountable, secret power to kill. If possible, we should avoid a world in which the CIA or other executive officials have unbelievable power to decide who gets to live and who dies in the name of a shadow war that might never end. Everyone has a cognizable interest in stopping a slide into tyranny.

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Nine of the ten campuses of the University of California — led by Berkeley ― once again made it into an annual ranking of the world’s leading universities. All’s well in California higher education, it might seem. But that is not what Pat Brown or Clark Kerr would say, were they alive today. They were, respectively, governor of the state and president of the University of California in 1960, when California adopted a “master plan” that became an international model. Their aim was not only to have excellent public universities, but to give the state’s population nearly universal and free access to them. Some pupils would so-called community colleges for a two-year vocational programme, others one of the (now 23) campuses of the California State University, and the best might go to a UC campus. In order to assure access for all, tuition charges were banned — only “fees” for some costs other than education were allowed. Most funding was to come from taxpayers. The premise was that higher education was a public good for the state, which was nursing its own future entrepreneurs and taxpayers. As Mr. Kerr put it, the universities were “bait to be hung in front of industry, with drawing power greater than low taxes or cheap labour.”That consensus has been overturned. In 1990, the state paid 78% of the cost of educating each student. That ratio dropped to 47% last year, and will fall even more during the current academic year, after the latest round of budget cuts, overseen by Jerry Brown, the current governor and son of Pat Brown. In some ways, California has now inverted the priorities of the older Brown’s era. Spending on prisons passed spending on universities in around 2004. This has led to concerns that public universities might lose their excellence. It takes money to attract the best professors, and the best students follow them. An alternative to worse public universities, however, is quasi-privatized ones. That seems to be the route taken in California. Thus students will this year, for the first time, pay more for tuition than the state gives in funding. This follows years of tuition fee increases far steeper than the average at American public universities. A place at a UC campus can easily now cost $13,000, or $31000 including housing, given California’s high costs. To raise other revenues, the various campuses also admit ever more out-of-state students (who pay three times more) and, target rich graduates for more donations. Led by the business and law schools, they behave increasingly like private universities, in other words. This strategy retains pockets of excellence. But it also runs counter to the philosophy of the master plan, by pricing ever more Californian families out of a place. The state now ranks 41st in the number of college degrees awarded for every 100 of its high school graduates. 1.Pat Brown and Clark Kerr attempted to set up excellent public universities, as well as(  ).2.What does Mr. Kerr imply by saying “bait” to be hung in front of industry (Line 4, Para. 3)?3.What is the concern on the public universities since the state spending on universities has dropped?4.Campuses in California receive students from other states for the purpose of (  ).  5.What can we infer from the passage about higher education in California?

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Electronic trash, known as e-waste, is piling up faster than ever in American homes and businesses. People do not know what to do with old televisions or computers so they throw them in the trash. National Solid Wastes Management Association state programs director Chaz Miller says the large amount of electronic waste Americans generate is not unexpected. “We have so many electronic products that ‘we use’”, said Miller. “They are being far more widely distributed throughout the population of the country and they tend to have relatively short life spans. Cell phones that last two or three years, computers that last maybe two or three years before they get replaced.”The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates more than 400 million consumer electronic items are dumped each year, and there is a push by more states to ban the waste from garbage dumps and create recycling programs. For example, as quickly as old electronics arrive at a recycling facility in Baltimore, Maryland, they are torn apart and sorted for useable parts. Plant manager Mike Fannon says e-waste here is resold to other companies that further break down the components that are valuable. “There are a lot of valuable metals that can be recovered and reused as opposed to just putting them in the garbage dump, and in certain components there are some materials that should not really be dumped in the garbage dump,” Fannon explained. Nearly 20 percent of electronic waste is recycled nationwide. Going back 1.3 years, it was only about six percent. Recycling rates continue to rise as more communities have banned electronics from garbage dumps in an effort to keep e-waste toxins (毒素,毒质), like lead and mercury out of garbage dumps. Many places have set up free drop-off sites where people can bring old items for recycling. Fannon says some items like old electronic circuit boards will get shipped to Canada, while, other parts will be shipped to countries in Asia. “These will go off actually to a copper smelter where workers will recover copper within the circuit board as well as precious metals that are on the board”, added Fannon. “There is gold plating on a lot of the material. There is silver. So all those precious metals are recovered in addition to the copper.”This year several states like Vermont imposed a ban on electronic waste in garbage dumps. More can be done to boost electronic waste recycling. Waste management analysts say U.S. facilities can safely recycle items. Environmentalists maintain they can reduce the amount of electronic waste in garbage dumps now by raising consumer awareness about the best ways to recycle e-waste. 1.Why is there so much electronic waste in America?2.According to EPA, what helps to reduce the dumped e-waste?3.What is the right way to recycle the old electronics according to Fannon?4.According to Fannon, what precious metal can people get from used circuit board?5.What can we infer from the last paragraph?

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More than a decade ago, cognitive scientists John Bransford and Daniel Schwartz, both then at Vanderbilt University, found that what distinguished young adults from children was not the ability to retain facts or apply prior knowledge to a new situation but a quality they called preparation for future learning. The researchers asked fifth graders and college students to create a recovery plan to protect bald eagles from extinction. Shockingly, the two groups came up with plans of similar quality (although the college students had better spelling skills). From the standpoint of a traditional educator, this outcome indicated that schooling had failed to help students think about ecosystem and extinction, major scientific ideas. The researchers decided to go deeper, however. They asked both groups to generate questions about important issues needed to create recovery plans. On this task, they found eagles and their habitats. Fifth graders tended to focus on features of individual eagles (“How big are they?” and “What do they eat?”). The college students had cultivated the ability to ask questions, the cornerstone of critical thinking. They had learned how to learn. Museums and other institutions of informal learning may be better suited to teach this skill than elementary and secondary schools. At the Exploratorium in San Francisco, we recently studied learning to ask good questions can affect the quality of people’s scientific inquiry. We found that we taught participants to ask “What if?” and “How can?” questions that nobody present would know the answer to and that would spark exploration, they engaged in better inquiry at the next exhibit—asking more questions, performing more experiments and making better interpretations of their results. Specifically, their questions became more comprehensive at the new exhibit. Rather than merely asking about something they wanted to try, they tended to include both cause and effect in their question. Asking juicy questions appears to be a transferable skill for deepening collaborative inquiry into the science content found in exhibits. This type of learning is not confined to museums or institutional settings. Informal learning environments tolerate failure better than schools. Perhaps many teachers have too little time to allow students to form and pursue their own questions and too much ground to cover in the curriculum. But people must acquire this skill somewhere. Our society depends on them being able to make critical decisions about their own medical treatment, say, or what we must do about global energy needs and demands. For that, we have a robust informal learning system that gives no grades, takes all comers, and is available even on holidays and weekends. 1.What is traditional educators’ interpretation of the research outcome mentioned in the first paragraph?2.In what way are college students different from children?3.What is the benefit of asking questions with no ready answers?4.What is said to be the advantage of informal learning?5.What does the author seem to encourage educators to do at the end of the passage?

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Education in most of the developing world is shocking. Half of children in South Asia and a third of those in Africa who complete four years of schooling cannot read properly. Most governments have promised to provide universal primary education and to promote secondary education. But even when public schools exist, they often fail.The failure of state education, combined with the shift in emerging economies from farming to jobs that need at least a modicum of education, has caused a private-school boom. According to the World Bank, across the developing world a fifth of primary-school children are enrolled in private schools, twice as many as 20 years ago. So many private schools are unregistered that the real figure is likely to be much higher.By and large, politicians and educationalists are unenthusiastic. Governments see education as the state's job. NGOs tend to be ideologically opposed to the private sector. The U. N. Special rapporteur on education. Kishore Singh, has said that “for-profit education should not be allowed in order to safeguard the noble cause of education”.This attitude harms those whom educationalists claim to serve: children. The boom in private education is excellent news for them and their countries, for three reasons.First, it is bringing in money—not just from parents, but also from investors, some in search of a profit. Most private schools in the developing world are single operators that charge a few dollars a month, but chains are now emerging.Second, private schools are often better value for money than state ones. Measuring this is hard, since the children who go to private schools tend to be better off, and therefore likely to perform better. But a rigorous four-year study of 6, 000 pupils in Andhra Pradesh, in southern India, suggested that private pupils performed better in English and Hindi than public-school pupils, and the private schools achieved these results at a third of the cost of the public schools.Lastly, private schools are innovative. Since technology has great (though as yet mostly unrealized) potential in education, this could be important. Bridge gives teachers tablets linked to a central system that provides teaching materials and monitors their work. Such robo-teaching may not be ideal, but it is better than lessons without either material or monitoring.The private sector has problems. But the alternative is often a public school that is worse—or no school at all. The growth of private schools is a manifestation of the healthiest of instincts: parents’ desire to do the best for their children. Governments should therefore be asking not how to discourage private education, but how to boost it. Ideally, they would subsidize private schools, preferably through a voucher which parents could spend at the schools of their choice and top up; they would regulate schools to ensure quality; they would run public exams to help parents make informed choice.1.According to the author, the state governments in developing countries fail to(  ).2.The author mentions Kishore Singh in order to show (  ).  3.Private schools surpass the public ones in that (  ).  4.What does the author think of the private education?5.Which of the following can be the title of the passage?

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