Psychologists have known for a long time that economists are wrong. Most economists—at least, those of the classical persuasion—believe that any financial gain, however small, is worth having. But psychologists know this is not true. They know because of the ultimatum game, the outcome of which is often the rejection of free money.
In this game, one player divides a pot of money between himself and another. The other then chooses whether to accept the offer. If he rejects it, neither player benefits. And despite the instincts of classical economics, a stingy (小气的) offer (one that is less than about a quarter of the total) is, indeed, usually rejected. The question is, why?
One explanation of the rejectionist strategy is that human psychology is adapted for repeated interactions rather than one-off trades. In this case, taking a tough, if self-sacrificial, line at the beginning pays dividends in future rounds of the game. Rejecting a stingy offer in a one-off game is thus just a single move in a larger strategy. And indeed, when one-off ultimatum games are played by trained economists, who know all this, they do tend to accept stingy offers more often than other people would. But even they have their limits. To throw some light on why those limits exist, Terence Burnham of Harvard University recently gathered a group of students of microeconomics and asked them to play the ultimatum game. All of the students he recruited were men.
Dr. Burnham’s research budget ran to a bunch of $40 games. When there are many rounds in the ultimatum game, players learn to split the money more or less equally. But Dr. Burnham was interested in a game of only one round. In this game, which the players knew in advance was final and could thus not affect future outcomes, proposers could choose only between offering the other player $25 (i.e. more than half the total) or $5. Responders could accept or reject the offer as usual. Those results recorded, Dr. Burnham took saliva (唾液) samples from all the students and compared the testosterone levels assessed from those samples with decisions made in the one-round game.
As he describes in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, the responders who rejected a low final offer had an average testosterone level more than 50% higher than the average of those who accepted. Five of the seven men with the highest testosterone levels in the study rejected a $5 ultimate offer but only one of the 19 others made the same decision.
What Dr. Burnham’s result supports is a much deeper rejection of the tenets of classical economics than one based on a slight mis-evolution of negotiating skills. It backs the idea that what people really strive for is relative rather than absolute prosperity. They would rather accept less themselves than see a rival get ahead. That is likely to be particularly true in individuals with high testosterone levels, since that hormone is correlated with social dominance in many species.
Economists often refer to this sort of behavior as irrational. In fact, it is not. It is simply, as it were, differently rational. The things that money can buy are merely means to an end—social status—that brings desirable reproductive opportunities. If another route brings that status more directly, money is irrelevant.
1. According to the passage, psychologists are different from economists in that ______.
2. In the third paragraph, the sentence “In this case, taking a tough, if self-sacrificial, line at the beginning pays dividends in future rounds of the game.” means that ______.
3. The result of Dr. Burnham’s study in the one-round game players shows that ______.
4. The point Dr. Burnham has concluded from his study is that ______.
5. Which one of the following statements is TRUE of the behavior of rejecting a low offer mentioned in the passage?
问题1选项
A.they think any financial gain is worthless if it could not guarantee the ultimatum game
B.they understand how economists are wrong by proving trivial financial gain could be ignored
C.they believe that it is necessary to reject some trivial gains to get bigger ones
D.they have known for a long time that from the perspective of psychology, financial gains are not worth pursuing
问题2选项
A.taking an uncompromising attitude at the beginning will lose more in the future rounds of the game
B.people who are not so calculating at the beginning will get good returns in the end
C.people who are selfless will get more in the end
D.taking a tough line at the beginning will pay more cost in the future game
问题3选项
A.men with high testosterone levels are usually more motivated to reject by the low offer
B.the fact testosterone is closely connected with social dominance proves people could hardly see a rival go ahead
C.men with high testosterone are more likely to reject the tenets of classical economics
D.men with high testosterone pay more attention to the relative gains
问题4选项
A.money is irrelevant when people seek for reproductive opportunities
B.people prefer non-financial ways to fulfill their purpose of gaining social status
C.what people really strive for is relative rather than absolute prosperity
D.the definition of rationality is different between the fields of economics and psychology
问题5选项
A.This kind of behavior is irrational as matter of fact.
B.This kind of behavior pays more attention to the social status rather than money.
C.This kind of behavior could bring desirable reproductive opportunities.
D.This kind of behavior is rational from a long view.
第1题:C
第2题:B
第3题:A
第4题:C
第5题:D
第1题:
【选项释义】
According to the passage, psychologists are different from economists in that ______. 根据这篇文章，心理学家与经济学家的不同之处在于______。
A. they think any financial gain is worthless if it could not guarantee the ultimatum game A. 他们认为任何经济利润如果不能保证最后获胜就是没有用的
B. they understand how economists are wrong by proving trivial financial gain could be ignored B. 通过证明小的经济利润可以被忽略，他们认为经济学家们是错误的
C. they believe that it is necessary to reject some trivial gains to get bigger ones C. 他们认为，为了获得更大的利益，有必要放弃一些微不足道的利益
D. they have known for a long time that from the perspective of psychology, financial gains are not worth pursuing D. 他们早就知道，从心理学的角度来看，经济利益是不值得追求的
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据题干关键词psychologists和economists可以定位到文章第一段前三句“Psychologists have known for a long time that economists are wrong. Most economists—at least, those of the classical persuasion—believe that any financial gain, however small, is worth having. But psychologists know this is not true.（心理学家早就知道经济学家错了。大多数经济学家——至少是那些古典学派的经济学家——相信任何经济收益，无论多小，都值得拥有。但心理学家知道这是不正确的。）”，由此可知，经济学家认为任何微小的利益都值得去追求，但心理学家并不认同这一立场，认为经济学家的这种思想是错误的。那么由此可以推断，心理学家认为并不是所有的小利益都要去追求，可以舍小取大，这也就是心理学家与经济学家的不同之处。因此C选项“他们认为，为了获得更大的利益，有必要放弃一些微不足道的利益”正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“他们认为任何经济利润如果不能保证最后获胜就是没有用的”，原文并没有说不能保证最后获胜的经济利润是没用的，属于无中生有；
B选项“通过证明小的经济利润可以被忽略，他们认为经济学家们是错误的”，小的经济利润可以被忽略这一点没有被证明，属于无中生有；
D选项“他们早就知道，从心理学的角度来看，经济利益是不值得追求的”，由原文可知，心理学家认为不值得追求的是一些微小的收益，而不是经济利益，放弃微小的利益也是为了追求更大的收益。此选项内容与原文不符，属于曲解原文。
第2题:
【选项释义】
In the third paragraph, the sentence “In this case, taking a tough, if self-sacrificial, line at the beginning pays dividends in future rounds of the game.” means that ______. 在第三段中，“在这种情况下，一开始就采取强硬的，如果是自我牺牲的路线，在未来的游戏中会获得好处。”的意思是______。
A. taking an uncompromising attitude at the beginning will lose more in the future rounds of the game A. 如果一开始就采取不妥协的态度，那么在接下来的几轮比赛中就会输得更多
B. people who are not so calculating at the beginning will get good returns in the end B. 一开始不那么精打细算的人，最终会得到不错的回报
C. people who are selfless will get more in the end C. 无私的人最终会得到更多
D. taking a tough line at the beginning will pay more cost in the future game D. 一开始采取强硬路线将在未来的游戏中付出更多代价
【考查点】语义推测题。
【解题思路】根据题干可以定位到文章第三段第二、三句“In this case, taking a tough, if self-sacrificial, line at the beginning pays dividends in future rounds of the game. Rejecting a stingy offer in a one-off game is thus just a single move in a larger strategy.（在这种情况下，在这种情况下，一开始就采取强硬的，如果是自我牺牲的路线，在未来的游戏中会获得好处。因此，在一次性游戏中拒绝吝啬的报价只是更大战略中的一步棋。）”，这里的意思是，在游戏的开始采取一种强硬的态度（即使这意味着自我牺牲），可以在未来几轮游戏中带来好处。这里的“pays dividends”指的是在未来的互动中获得更好的结果或收益。也就是说一开始不要贪得所有的大小利益，而是要有长远的眼光，这样才能取得更大的收益。因此B选项“一开始不那么精打细算的人，最终会得到不错的回报”正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“如果一开始就采取不妥协的态度，那么在接下来的几轮比赛中就会输得更多”，文中说的是一开始采取强硬路线将会在未来的游戏中获得更多好处，与原文意思相反，属于反向干扰；
C选项“无私的人最终会得到更多”，这个描述与原文中的“自我牺牲”不完全一致，而且原文没有提到无私行为最终会获得更多，而是强调了策略上的长远收益，属于曲解原文；
D选项“一开始采取强硬路线将在未来的游戏中付出更多代价”，文中说的是一开始采取强硬路线将会在未来的游戏中获得好处，而不是需要付出更多代价，属于曲解原文。
第3题:
【选项释义】
The result of Dr. Burnham’s study in the one-round game players shows that ______. 伯纳姆博士对一轮游戏玩家的研究结果表明______。
A. men with high testosterone levels are usually more motivated to reject by the low offer A. 睾丸激素水平高的人通常更有动力拒绝低报价
B. the fact testosterone is closely connected with social dominance proves people could hardly see a rival go ahead B. 睾丸激素与社会支配地位密切相关的事实证明，人们很难看到竞争对手走在前面
C. men with high testosterone are more likely to reject the tenets of classical economics C. 睾丸激素水平高的人更有可能拒绝古典经济学的原则
D. men with high testosterone pay more attention to the relative gains D. 睾丸激素水平高的人更注重相对收益
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据题干关键词result可以定位到文章第四段最后一句“Those results recorded, Dr. Burnham took saliva samples from all the students and compared the testosterone levels assessed from those samples with decisions made in the one-round game.（这些结果被记录下来后，伯纳姆博士采集了所有学生的唾液样本，并将这些样本中评估的睾丸激素水平与一轮游戏中的决策进行了比较。）”，紧接着后文第五段第一句马上说到“As he describes in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, the responders who rejected a low final offer had an average testosterone level more than 50% higher than the average of those who accepted.（正如他在《英国皇家学会学报》上所描述的那样，拒绝较低最终报价的应答者的睾丸激素水平比接受报价的应答者的平均水平高出50%以上。）”，由此可知，具有较高睾丸激素水平的应答者在一轮游戏中拒绝较低报价的可能性更大，从而可推断，高睾丸激素水平的个体对较低报价的拒绝动机通常更强。因此A选项“睾丸激素水平高的人通常更有动力拒绝低报价”正确。
【干扰项排除】
B选项“睾丸激素与社会支配地位密切相关的事实证明，人们很难看到竞争对手走在前面”和C选项“睾丸激素水平高的人更有可能拒绝古典经济学的原则”在文中均没有提及，属于无中生有；
D选项“睾丸激素水平高的人更注重相对收益”，根据文章倒数第二段第二句“It backs the idea that what people really strive for is relative rather than absolute prosperity.（它支持这样一种观点，即人们真正追求的是相对繁荣，而不是绝对繁荣。）”可知，文中说的并不是睾丸激素水平高的人而是人们普遍更注重相对收获，属于张冠李戴。
第4题:
【选项释义】
The point Dr. Burnham has concluded from his study is that ______. 伯纳姆博士从他的研究中得出的结论是______。
A. money is irrelevant when people seek for reproductive opportunities A. 当人们寻求繁育机会时，金钱是无关紧要的
B. people prefer non-financial ways to fulfill their purpose of gaining social status B. 人们更喜欢非金钱的方式来实现他们获得社会地位的目的
C. what people really strive for is relative rather than absolute prosperity C. 人们真正追求的是相对的繁荣，而不是绝对的繁荣
D. the definition of rationality is different between the fields of economics and psychology D. 经济学和心理学对理性的定义不同
【考查点】细节事实题。
【解题思路】根据题干关键词Dr. Burnham has concluded可以定位到文章倒数第二段第一、二句“What Dr. Burnham’s result supports is a much deeper rejection of the tenets of classical economics than one based on a slight mis-evolution of negotiating skills. It backs the idea that what people really strive for is relative rather than absolute prosperity.（伯纳姆博士的结果所支持的，是对古典经济学原理的更深程度的拒绝，而不是基于谈判技巧的轻微错误进化。它支持这样一种观点，即人们真正追求的是相对繁荣，而不是绝对繁荣。）”，由此可知，伯纳姆博士最终支持的结论是：人们真正追求的是相对的财富而不是绝对的财富。因此C选项“人们真正追求的是相对的繁荣，而不是绝对的繁荣”正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“当人们寻求繁育机会时，金钱是无关紧要的”，根据文章最后一段可知，虽然伯纳姆博士的研究确实表明，在追求社会地位的过程中，金钱可能不是唯一途径，但这并不等于说在寻求繁育机会时金钱完全无关紧要，这种说法过于绝对，属于曲解原文；
B选项“人们更喜欢非金钱的方式来实现他们获得社会地位的目的”，虽然文中有提到人们可能通过非金钱手段来追求社会地位，但并没有直接比较人们对哪种途径更偏好，属于曲解原文；
D选项“经济学和心理学对理性的定义不同”，与伯纳姆博士研究的目的和结论无关，属于答非所问。
第5题:
【选项释义】
Which one of the following statements is TRUE of the behavior of rejecting a low offer mentioned in the passage? 关于文中提到的拒绝低报价的行为，下列哪个陈述是正确的？
A. This kind of behavior is irrational as a matter of fact. A. 事实上，这种行为是不理智的。
B. This kind of behavior pays more attention to the social status rather than money. B. 这种行为更注重社会地位而不是金钱。
C. This kind of behavior could bring desirable reproductive opportunities. C. 这种行为可以带来理想的繁育机会。
D. This kind of behavior is rational from a long view. D. 从长远来看，这种行为是理智的。
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据文章最后一段“Economists often refer to this sort of behavior as irrational. In fact, it is not. It is simply, as it were, differently rational. The things that money can buy are merely means to an end—social status—that brings desirable reproductive opportunities. If another route brings that status more directly, money is irrelevant.（经济学家通常认为这种行为是非理智的。事实上，并非如此。可以说，这只不过是一种不同的理智。金钱能买到的东西仅仅是达到最终社会地位的手段——它带来了理想的繁育机会。如果另一条路线更直接地带来这种地位，那么金钱就无关紧要了。）”，此处的“this sort of behavior”指的就是拒绝低报价的行为，由此可知，经济学家认为这种行为是不理智的，而实际上是一种理智的行为，心理学家从更高更深的层面来看，金钱只是达到目的的一种手段，而为了达到一定的目的拒绝眼前小的利益是理智的行为。因此D选项“从长远来看，这种行为是理智的。”正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“事实上，这种行为是不理智的。”与原文意思相反，属于反向干扰；
B选项“这种行为更注重社会地位而不是金钱。”，在伯纳姆博士的研究中，并没有直接证据表明拒绝低报价的行为是出于对社会地位的关注超过金钱，属于曲解原文；
C选项“这种行为可以带来理想的繁育机会。”，文中说的是：金钱能买到的东西仅仅是达到最终社会地位的手段——它带来了理想的繁育机会，并不是说拒绝低报价的行为可以带来理想的繁育机会，属于曲解原文。
