“Avoid compulsion,” said Plato in the Republic, “and let your children’s lessons take the form of play.” Horace, among others, recommended rewarding a child with cakes. Erasmus tells of an English gentleman who tried to teach his son Greek and Latin without punishment. He taught the boy to use a bow and arrow and set up targets in the shape of Greek and Latin letters, rewarding each hit with a cherry. He also fed the boy letters cut from delicious biscuits. Privileges and favors are often suggested, and the teacher may be personally reinforcing as friend or entertainer. In industrial education students are paid for learning. Certain explicit contrived reinforcers, such as marks, grades, and diplomas, are characteristic of education as an institution. (These suggest progress, but like progress they must be made reinforcing for other reasons.) Prizes are intrinsically reinforcing. Honors and medals derive their power from prestige or esteem. This varies between cultures and epochs. In 1876 Oscar Wilde, then 22 years old and halfway toward his B.A. at Oxford, got a “first in Mods.” He wrote to a friend: “... I did not know what I had got till the next morning at 12 o’clock, breakfasting at the Mitre, I read it in the Times. Altogether I swaggered horribly but am really pleased with myself. My poor mother is in great delight, and I was overwhelmed with telegrams on Thursday from everyone I knew.” The contemporary student graduating summa cum laude is less widely acclaimed.
Although free of some of the by-products of aversive control, positive reinforcers of this sort are not without their problems. Many are effective only in certain states of deprivation which are not always easily arranged. Making a student hungry in order to reinforce him with food would raise personal issues which are not entirely avoided with other kinds of reinforcers. We cannot all get prizes, and if some students gets high grades, others must get low.
But the main problem again is the contingencies. Much of what the child is to do in school does not have the form of play, with its naturally reinforcing consequences, nor is there any natural connection with food or a passing grade or a medal. Such contingencies must be arranged by the teacher, and the arrangement is often defective. The boy mentioned by Erasmus may have salivated slightly upon seeking a Greek or Latin text, and he was probably a better archer, but his knowledge of Greek and Latin could not have been appreciably improved. Grades are almost always given long after the student had stopped behaving as a student. We must know that such contingencies are weak because we would never use them to shape skilled behavior. In industrial education pay is usually by the hour—in other words, contingent mainly on being present. Scholarships are contingent on a general level of performance. All these contingencies could no doubt be improved, but there is probably good reason why they remain defective.
26. It can be inferred that the “English gentleman” believed that good teaching utilized ______.
27. The parenthetical remark in Paragraph 1 (These suggest progress ... for other reasons) is intended to caution educators against ______.
28. This passage indicates that “cultures and epochs” (Paragraph 1) vary in ways that ______.
29. The Wilde story in Paragraph 1, “In 1876 … everyone I knew,” is intended to illustrate ______.
30. This passage mentions which of the following as “problems” (Paragraph 2) inherent in the use of positive reinforcers in education?
I. difficulties in scheduling the reinforcers
II. limitations in the supply of reinforcers
III. the fact that rewards encourage only superficial learning
31. In the final paragraph of this passage, the author suggests that grades are problematic as reinforcers because they ______.
问题1选项
A.punishment
B.well-written books
C.reward
D.careful grading
问题2选项
A.failing to make grades and diplomas meaningful to students
B.punishing students unnecessarily
C.emphasizing entertainment over rigor
D.using rewards as reinforcers
问题3选项
A.universities choose from among their applicants
B.academic awards are effective as motivations
C.universities teach literature
D.the media portray educational crisis
问题4选项
A.how a famous author used rewards to teach his students
B.the dangerous effects of using academic rewards
C.the point that Plato makes in the first sentence
D.how the modern cultural perception of academic honors differs from that of a previous era
问题5选项
A.I only
B.II only
C.I and II only
D.I and III only
问题6选项
A.cannot be given to every student
B.are not publicized enough
C.are not given immediately after the desired behavior is exhibited
D.are not as useful to the student as money
第1题:C
第2题:D
第3题:B
第4题:D
第5题:C
第6题:C
26.【选项释义】
26. It can be inferred that the “English gentleman” believed that good teaching utilized ______. 26. 可以推断，“英国绅士”认为好的教学是通过______来实现的。
A. punishment A. 惩罚
B. well-written books B. 好的书
C. reward C. 奖励
D. careful grading D. 认真的评分
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据第一段第三至五句“伊拉斯谟讲述了一位英国绅士试图不使用惩罚来教他的儿子希腊语和拉丁语的故事。他教男孩使用弓和箭，并设置希腊和拉丁字母形状的靶子，每击中一次奖励一颗樱桃。他还把从美味的饼干上剪下来的字母喂给小男孩吃。”，从中我们可知，英国绅士是通过奖励来教儿子，那么我们推断，英国绅士认为好的教学是通过奖励实现的，所以C项正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项与原文相反，英国绅士是不使用惩罚来教学的，该项属于反向干扰；
B、D选项没有提到，并不是英国绅士的教学手段，属于无中生有。
27.【选项释义】
27. The parenthetical remark in Paragraph 1 (These suggest progress ... for other reasons) is intended to caution educators against ______. 27. 第1段的插入语These suggest progress ... for other reasons是为了提醒教育工作者不要______。
A. failing to make grades and diplomas meaningful to students A. 使得成绩和文凭对学生没有意义
B. punishing students unnecessarily B. 不必要地惩罚学生
C. emphasizing entertainment over rigor C. 强调娱乐多于严谨
D. using rewards as reinforcers D. 使用奖励作为强化物
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】定位到文中第一段第九句插入语“这意味着进步，但与进步一样，由于其他原因，它们必须得到加强（they must be made reinforcing）”，而前一句是提到“某些明确的人为强化条件，如分数、成绩和文凭，是教育作为一种机构的特征”，从这可知，某些人为的强化条件对教育是有作用的，但是同样需要reinforcing（强化）；那么根据第十句“奖励具有内在的加强作用（Prizes are intrinsically reinforcing）”我们可知，这些人为强化条件可以使用奖励作为强化物，所以D项正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项与原文相反，原文提到的是成绩和文凭等人为强化条件对教育是有作用的，该项属于反向干扰；
B、C选项在这没有提到，属于无中生有。
28.【选项释义】
28. This passage indicates that “cultures and epochs” (Paragraph 1) vary in ways that ______. 28. 这篇文章第1段指出，“文化和时代”在______方面不同。
A. universities choose from among their applicants A. 在大学选择申请者
B. academic awards are effective as motivations B. 学术奖励是有效的动机
C. universities teach literature C. 大学教授文学
D. the media portray educational crisis D. 媒体描绘教育危机
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据题干中的信息定位到第一段第十一句“这一点因文化和时代的不同而不同（This varies between cultures and epochs）”，其中this指的是上一句提到的“荣誉和奖章的力量来自声望和尊重”，所以我们可知，荣誉和奖章会因文化和时代的不同而变化，而荣誉和奖章都属于一种奖励。随后，作者用Oscar Wilde举了一个例子，他获得了“牛津大学文学学士学位考试第一名”，于是他给朋友写了一封信“我不知道我得到了什么，直到第二天早上12点，在教堂吃早餐时，我在《泰晤士报》上看到了我得第一名的消息……星期四那天，我收到了一大堆我认识的人发来的电报”；然后提到了当代的情况：“而当代以最优秀成绩毕业的学生（contemporary student）就没那么受欢迎了（less widely acclaimed）”；从中我们可知，当代和以前对于优秀学生的奖励方式不同。因此，我们可以推断，奖励作为一种动机是因“时代和文化”的不同而变化，B项正确。
【干扰项排除】
A、C选项没有提到，属于无中生有；
D选项中的educational crisis并没有提到，文中提到的是报刊这类媒体是用来奖励学生声望和尊重的，该项属于曲解原文。
29.【选项释义】
29. The Wilde story in Paragraph 1, “In 1876 … everyone I knew,” is intended to illustrate ______. 29. 第一段中Wilde的故事（In 1876 … everyone I knew）是为了说明______。
A. how a famous author used rewards to teach his students A. 一位著名作家是如何用奖励来教育他的学生的
B. the dangerous effects of using academic rewards B. 使用学术奖励的危险后果
C. the point that Plato makes in the first sentence C. 柏拉图在第一句话中提出的观点
D. how the modern cultural perception of academic honors differs from that of a previous era D. 现代文化对学术荣誉的认知与以往有何不同
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】定位到文章第一段末尾，这里提到了Wilde的故事，他获得了“牛津大学文学学士学位考试第一名”，他在给朋友的信中写道：“我不知道我得到了什么，直到第二天早上12点，在教堂吃早餐时，我在《泰晤士报》上看到了我得第一名的消息……星期四那天，我收到了一大堆我认识的人发来的电报”，然后和当代进行了对比，最后一句说“而当代以最优秀成绩毕业的学生（contemporary student）就没那么受欢迎了（less widely acclaimed）”，从中我们可知，以前对于优秀学生是进行登报，让他得到很多人的尊重，而在当代，最优秀的学生很少人知道，所以我们可以推断，第一段使用Wilde的故事是为了对比当代与以前对学术荣誉的认知，D项正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项在该段没有提到，属于无中生有；
B选项中的dangerous effects不符合原文，属于曲解原文；
C选项中，柏拉图在第一句话的观点是“避免强迫，让你的孩子以玩的形式学习”，这和Wilde的故事并没有相似处，属于出处错位。
30.【选项释义】
30. This passage mentions which of the following as “problems” (Paragraph 2) inherent in the use of positive reinforcers in education?
I. difficulties in scheduling the reinforcers
II. limitations in the supply of reinforcers
III. the fact that rewards encourage only superficial learning
30. 这篇文章提到下列哪一个是在教育中使用积极强化物所固有的“问题”（第二段）？
I. 计划强化物的困难
II. 提供强化物的限制
III. 奖励只鼓励肤浅的学习
A. I only A. 只有第一点
B. II only B. 只有第二点
C. I and II only C. 只有第一点和第二点
D. I and III only D. 只有第一点和第三点
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】定位到文章第二段，中间两句说到“许多强化物只有在某些缺乏状态下才有效，这并不总是容易去安排（not always easily arranged）。如果让一个学生饿着肚子，以食物来强化他，会引发个人问题，这是其他强化物无法完全避免的（not entirely avoided with other kinds of reinforcers）。”，从中可知，即便是积极的强化物也并非没有问题，许多的强化物只有在一定的状态下才有效，并不容易去安排（not always easily arranged），而且其他强化物也很难完全避免；那么从中我们可以推知，“计划强化物的困难”和“提供强化物的限制”都是使用积极强化物所存在的问题，故C项正确。
【干扰项排除】A、B、D选项均曲解原文。
31.【选项释义】
31. In the final paragraph of this passage, the author suggests that grades are problematic as reinforcers because they ______. 31. 在这篇文章的最后一段，作者认为分数作为强化因素是有问题的，因为它们______。
A. cannot be given to every student A. 不能给予每个学生
B. are not publicized enough B. 宣传不够
C. are not given immediately after the desired behavior is exhibited C. 不是在期望的行为出现后立即给予
D. are not as useful to the student as money D. 对学生来说没有钱有用
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】定位到最后一段，第二句提到“孩子们在学校里要做的很多事情都没有游戏的形式，也没有任何与食物、及格分数或奖牌的自然联系（nor is there any natural connection with food or a passing grade or a medal）”，可知，孩子们在学校做的大部分事情或者学习并不是以玩的形式，也没有奖励，包括食物、及格分数或奖牌等；然后第四句提到“分数几乎总是在学生不再表现得像个学生之后很久才给的（long after）”，随后用实业教育进行了对比，实业教育是“工资通常按小时计算”；从long after和实业教育的对比，我们可以推知，分数作为强化因素有问题是因为总是在很久之后才给，故C项正确。
【干扰项排除】
A、B选项没有提到，属于无中生有；
D选项在文中只是做一个对比，并不是表达该项意思，属于曲解原文。
