Directions: In the following text, some sentences have been removed. For Questions 41-45, choose the most suitable one from the list A-F to fit into each of the numbered blanks. There is one extra choice, which does not fit in any of the blanks. Mark your answers on the ANSWER SHEET. (10 points)
Most erroneous conclusions by scientists are discovered during the process of publishing their research. (41) So-called “junk science” bypasses this system of peer review. Presented directly to the public by people variously described as “experts” or “activists,” often with little or no supporting evidence, this “junk science” undermines the ability of elected representatives, jurists, and others— including everyday consumers—to make rational decisions.
(42) By regulatory definition, these foods may contain monoglycerides and diglycerides, but not triglycerides. From the point of view of solid science this definition makes no practical sense, given that the body metabolizes mono, di-and triglycerides in essentially the same way. Meanwhile unwary consumers take the “fat-free” label as a license to eat these foods to excess, and Americans are more obese now than ever before.
A more amusing example is “Vitamin O,” a wonder supplement advertised to “maximize your nutrients, purify your blood stream, and eliminate toxins and poisons—in other words, [to supply] all the processes necessary to prevent disease and promote health.” (43) In other words, the 60,000 consumers purchasing “Vitamin O”—to the tune of $20 a month—were taking salt water! Although this product was legally exempted from certain FDA requirements by virtue of its status as a “natural” diet supplement, the FTC was able to file a complaint against it in 1999, based on false claims by its promoters that it was being used by NASA astronauts. Otherwise “Vitamin O” would still be one of the world’s best-selling placebos.
The potential lasting power of “junk science” is demonstrated by the story of German physician Samuel Hahnemann, who took quinine back in 1776 to investigate its use against malaria. After taking quinine he experienced chills and fever, which are the symptoms of malaria. (44) In the course of testing this theory with other herbal remedies, Hahnemann discovered that many “natural” herbs are toxic and made his patients worse. The reduce the toxic effects, he diluted the remedies until they seemed to be working. On that basis he formulated a “law of infinitesimals” stating that higher dilutions of herbal cures increase their medicinal benefits. To be fair, Hahnemann conducted these experiments more than 70 years before scientists understood that a dilution weaker than one part in 6.02×1043 may not contain even a single molecule of the dissolved substance. (45)
A. An example of “junk science” I like to use with my students is the myth of “fat-free foods” invented by the food industry with the help of federal regulators.
B. Other scientists review submitted articles, often repeating any relevant tests or experiments and always evaluating the conclusions that have been drawn from them.
C. For this he concluded, wrongly, that “likes cure likes,” i.e., that diseases should be treated with medicines that produce similar symptoms to the diseases.
D. Thus he did not realize that upon administering to his patients 30X preparations—dilutions of one part herb to 1030 parts water—the placebo effect was all that was really left to measure.
E. Despite this preposterous claim, the market for these remedies is enormous.
F. It was described on its label as “stabilized oxygen molecules in a solution of distilled water and sodium chloride.”
