People are extraordinarily skilled at spotting cheats—much better than they are at detecting rule-breaking that does not involve cheating. A study showing that just how good we are at this adds weight to the theory that our exceptional brainpower arose through evolutionary pressures to acquire specific cognitive skills.
The still-controversial idea that humans have specialized decision-making systems in addition to generalized reasoning ability has been around for decades. Its advocates point out that the ability to identify untrustworthy people should be favored evolutionally since cheats risk undermining the social interactions in which people trade goods or services for mutual benefit.
To test whether we have a special ability to reason about cheating, Leda Cosmides, an evolutionary psychologist at the University of California, Santa Barbara, and her colleagues used a standard psychological test called the Wason selection task, which tests volunteers’ ability to reason about “if/then” statements.
The researchers set up scenarios in which they asked undergraduate volunteers to imagine they were supervising workers sorting applications for admission to two schools: a good one in a district where school taxes are high, and a poor one on an equally wealthy, but lightly taxed district. The hypothetical workers were supposed to follow a rule that specified “if a student is admitted to the good school, they must live in the highly taxed district”.
Half the time, the test subjects are told that the workers had children of their own applying to the schools, thus having a motive to cheat; the rest of the time they were told the workers were merely absent-minded and sometimes made innocent errors. Then the test subjects were asked how they would verify that the workers were not breaking the rule.
Cosmides found that when the “supervisors” thought they were checking for innocent errors, just 9 of 33, or 27 percent, got the right answer—looking for a student admitted to the good school who did not live in the highly-taxed district. In contrast, when the supervisors thought they were watching for cheats, they did much better with 23 of 34, or 68 percent getting the right answer.
This suggests that people are, indeed, more adept at spotting cheat than at detecting mere rule-breaking. Cosmides says, “any cues that it’s just an innocent mistake actually inactivate the detection mechanism.”
The result is what you would expect if natural selection had favored this specific ability in early, pro-social humans—and is not at all what would happen under selection for generalized intelligence, Cosmides says. “My claim is that there is nothing domain-general in the mind, just that what can’t be the only thing going on in the mind.”
Other psychologists remain skeptical of this conclusion. “If you want to conclude that therefore there’s a module in the mind for detecting cheater, I see zero evidence for that,” says Steven Sloman, a cognitive scientist at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. “It’s certainly possible that it’s something we learned through experience. There is no evidence that it’s anything innate.”
1.The findings of the study were in favor of ( ).
2.The test “supervisors” appeared to be more adept at ( ).
3.When she says "...that can’t be the only thing going on in the mind”, Cosmides most probably implies that ( ).
4.In response to Cosmides’ claim, Sloman would say that ( ).
5.Which of the following can be the best title for the passage?
问题1选项
A.the highly-advocated skills of cheating at school
B.the relation between intelligence and evolution
C.the phenomenon of cheating at school
D.the human innate ability to cheat
问题2选项
A.spotting cheats than what appeared to be mere rule-breaking
B.detecting mere rule-breaking than spotting cheats
C.spotting their own children cheating than others doing it
D.detecting cheats in the highly taxed district than in the lightly taxed one
问题3选项
A.cheating is highly motivated in the social interactions
B.our specific cognitive skills can serve an evolutionary purpose
C.there is no such a mental thing as a specialized decision-making system
D.the ability to identify untrustworthy people should be favored evolutionarily
问题4选项
A.it was great possibility
B.it would be misleading
C.it was unbelievable
D.it’s acquired
问题5选项
A.Cheating at School
B.Cheating as the Human Nature
C.Imaginary Intelligence and Cheating
D.Intelligence Evolved to Root Out Cheats
第1题:B
第2题:A
第3题:B
第4题:D
第5题:D
第1题:
【选项释义】
The findings of the study were in favor of( ). 研究结果支持____。
A. the highly-advocated skills of cheating at school A. 在学校里被高度提倡的作弊技巧
B. the relation between intelligence and evolution B. 智力和进化之间的关系
C. the phenomenon of cheating at school C. 学校里的作弊现象
D. the human innate ability to cheat D. 人类天生的欺骗能力
【考查点】事实细节题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到第一段最后一句“一项研究表明,我们在这方面有多么出色,这为一个理论增加了依据,即我们非凡的脑力是通过进化压力而获得特定的认知技能的。”也就是说研究结果证实了脑力与进化的关系,即脑力是通过进化压力而获得的。选项B“智力和进化之间的关系”正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“在学校里被高度提倡的作弊技巧”,这一研究并不支持作弊技巧,且学校里也不提倡作弊,该选项属于无中生有;
C选项“学校里的作弊现象”,该研究是研究作弊现象的,但并不是支持这一现象,该选项属于过度推断;
D选项“人类天生的欺骗能力”,该研究并不支持欺骗能力,该选项属于无中生有。
第2题:
【选项释义】
The test “supervisors” appeared to be more adept at( ). 测试“监督者”似乎更擅长____。
A. spotting cheats than what appeared to be mere rule-breaking A. 发现作弊行为而不是单纯的违规行为
B. detecting mere rule-breaking than spotting cheats B. 仅仅是发现违规行为而不是发现作弊行为
C. spotting their own children cheating than others doing it C. 发现自己的孩子作弊比别人作弊更容易
D. detecting cheats in the highly taxed district than in the lightly taxed one D. 在税收高的地区比在税收低的地区检测欺诈行为
【考查点】事实细节题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到第七段第一句“这表明,人们确实更善于发现欺骗行为,而不仅仅是发现违规行为。”选项A与原文表述一致,所以正确。
【干扰项排除】
B选项“仅仅是发现违规行为而不是发现作弊行为”,文中提到“人们确实更善于发现欺骗行为,而不仅仅是发现违规行为。”该选项与原文意思相反,属于反向干扰;
C选项“发现自己的孩子作弊比别人作弊更容易”,文中测试的是工人的孩子,该选项属于无中生有;
D选项“在税收高的地区比在税收低的地区检测欺诈行为”,文中说的是“让大学生志愿者想象他们正在监督工作人员整理两所学校的入学申请:一所好学校位于学校税高的地区,另一所穷学校位于同样富裕但税收较低的地区。”,并不是说在税收高和税收低的地区检测欺诈行为,该选项属于过度推断。
第3题:
【选项释义】
When she says “…that can’t be the only thing going on in the mind”, Cosmides most probably implies that( ). 当她说“……头脑中不可能只有这些东西”,Cosmides最可能暗示____。
A. cheating is highly motivated in the social interactions A. 在社会交往中,欺骗是很有动机的
B. our specific cognitive skills can serve an evolutionary purpose B. 我们特定的认知技能可以为进化服务
C. there is no such a mental thing as a specialized decision-making system C. 没有这样一种精神上的东西作为专门的决策系统
D. the ability to identify untrustworthy people should be favored evolutionarily D. 识别不值得信任的人的能力应该受到进化的青睐
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到倒数第二段“如果在早期亲社会的人类中,自然选择偏爱这种特殊的能力,那么结果就是你所期望的,而在广义智力的选择中根本不会发生这种情况”。可推断人类社会早期,自然选择使得人类具备了这一特定能力,而人类社会后期,自然选择没有发挥作用,更多的是智力产生作用。也就是说智力可以为进化服务。因此选B。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“在社会交往中,欺骗是很有动机的”,文中没有体现,该选项属于无中生有;
C选项“没有这样一种精神上的东西作为专门的决策系统”,文中提及“除了广义推理能力,人类还拥有专门的决策系统”,该选项属于反向干扰;
D选项“识别不值得信任的人的能力应该受到进化的青睐”,文中第二段提到“它的支持者指出,识别不值得信任的人的能力应该受到进化的青睐”,这里并不是Cosmides所暗示的,该选项属于张冠李戴。
第4题:
【选项释义】
In response to Cosmides’ claim, Sloman would say that( ). 作为对Cosmides的回应,Sloman会说____。
A. it was great possibility A. 可能性很大
B. it would be misleading B. 这会误导人
C. it was unbelievable C. 这是难以置信的
D. it’s acquired D. 这是可以后天习得的
【考查点】事实细节题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到最后一段Sloman说:“这也有可能是我们从经验中学到的。没有证据表明这种能力是与生倶来的。”由此可推断,Sloman认为这有可能是后天习得的,所以选项D正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“可能性很大”,曲解Sloman的回应,该选项属于过度推断;
B选项“这会误导人”,曲解Sloman的回应,该选项属于过度推断;
C选项“这是难以置信的”,是对Sloman回应的曲解,属于过度推断。
第5题:
【选项释义】
Which of the following can be the best title for the passage? 下面哪个选项是这篇文章的最佳标题?
A. Cheating at School A. 在学校作弊
B. Cheating as the Human Nature B. 欺骗是人的本性
C. Imaginary Intelligence and Cheating C. 假想智力与欺骗
D. Intelligence Evolved to Root Out Cheats D. 智力的进化能够发现作弊
【考查点】主旨大意题。
【解题思路】文章第一段提出本文中心论点:我们非凡的智力是通过进化压力而获得特定的认知技能的。之后文章用测试“推理欺骗的特殊能力”举例说明,表明人们确实更善于发现作弊行为,而不是仅仅发现违规行为。倒数第二段科斯米德斯的观点是:如果在早期亲社会的人类中,自然选择偏爱这种特殊的能力,那么结果就是你所期望的,而在广义智力的选择中根本不会发生这种情况。也就是说智力可以为进化服务。最后一段Steven Sloman提出观点:这当然有可能是我们通过经验学到的东西。没有证据表明它是天生的。也就是说他认为后天可以习得一些能力。综合全文来看,文章主要讲述了智力在进化中的作用,在人类社会后期智力的进化可以使我们获得一些能力,比如说作弊这个能力。因此对比选项,选D“智力的进化能够发现作弊”正确。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“在学校作弊”,文章只是用作弊这个测试来举例,属于片面理解全文,该选项属于以偏概全;
B选项“欺骗是人的本性”,文章没有显示这一点,该选项属于无中生有;
C选项“假想智力与欺骗”,没有体现文中智力进化这一点,属于以偏概全。
【参考译文】
人们发现欺骗行为的能力非常熟练——比发现不涉及作弊的违反规则行为的能力强得多。一项研究表明,我们在这方面的能力有多强,这为我们的超常脑力是通过进化压力获得特定认知技能而产生的这一理论增添了砝码。
人类除了具有一般的推理能力外,还拥有专门的决策系统,这一至今仍有争议的观点已经存在了几十年。这种观点的支持者指出,识别不值得信赖的人的能力在进化过程中应该受到青睐,因为欺骗有可能破坏人们为了共同利益而进行商品或服务交易的社会互动。
为了测试我们是否具有推理欺骗的特殊能力,加州大学圣巴巴拉分校的进化心理学家莱达·科斯米德斯和她的同事使用了一种名为沃森选择测试的标准心理测试,该测试可以测试志愿者推理“如果/那么”语句的能力。
研究人员设置了一些情景,让大学生志愿者想象他们正在监督工作人员整理两所学校的入学申请:一所是学校税率较高地区的好学校,另一所是同样富裕但税率较低地区的差学校。假设的工作人员应该遵守一条规则,即“如果学生被好学校录取,他们必须住在高税收区”。
一半时间里,测试对象被告知,这些工人有自己的孩子申请学校,因此有作弊的动机;其余时间里,他们被告知,这些工人只是心不在焉,有时会犯一些无辜的错误。然后,测试者被问及他们将如何核实工人没有违反规定。
科斯米季斯发现,当“监督员”认为他们是在检查无辜错误时,33人中只有9人,即27%的人得到了正确答案——寻找一个被好学校录取的学生,而这个学生并不住在高税收区。相比之下,当监督员认为他们是在检查作弊行为时,他们的表现要好得多,34人中有23人,即68%的人得到了正确答案。
这表明,人们确实更善于发现欺骗行为,而不是仅仅发现违反规则的行为。科斯米德斯说:“任何认为这只是一个无辜错误的提示实际上都会使检测机制失效。”
科斯米德斯说,如果自然选择偏爱早期亲社会人类的这种特定能力,那么结果就是你所期望的——而这完全不是在普遍智力选择下会发生的情况。“我的观点是,心智中没有领域通用的东西,只是那不能成为心智中唯一发生的事情。”
其他心理学家仍然对这一结论持怀疑态度。罗德岛普罗维登斯布朗大学的认知科学家史蒂文·斯洛曼说:“如果你想得出结论说,因此在大脑中有一个检测作弊者的模块,我认为没有证据证明这一点。这当然有可能是我们从经验中学到的。没有证据表明这是与生俱来的。”