Archaeology can tell us plenty about how humans looked and the way they lived tens of thousands of years ago. But what about the deeper questions? Could early humans speak, were they capable of self-conscious reflection, did they believe in anything?
Such questions might seem to be beyond the scope of science. Not so. Answering them is the focus of a burgeoning field that brings together archaeology and neuroscience. It aims to chart the development of human cognitive powers. This is not easy to do. A skull gives no indication of whether its owner was capable of speech, for example. The task then is to find proxies(替代物)for key traits and behaviors that have stayed intact over millennia.
Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of this endeavor is teasing out the role of culture as a force in the evolution of our mental skills. For decades development of the brain has been seen as exclusively biological. But increasingly, that is being challenged.
Take what the Cambridge archaeologist Colin Renfrew calls “the sapient(智人的)paradox(矛盾)”. Evidence suggests that the human genome, and hence the brain, has changed little in the past 60,000 years. Yet it wasn’t until about 10 000 years ago that profound changes took place in human behavior: people settled in villages and built shrines. Renfrew’s paradox is why, if the hardware was in place, did it take so long for humans to start changing the world?
His answer is that the software—the culture—took a long time to develop. In particular , the intervening time saw humans vest (赋予)meaning in objects and symbols. Those meanings were developed by social interaction over successive generations, passed on through teaching, and stored in the neuronal connections of children.
Culture also changes biology by modifying natural selection, sometimes in surprising ways. How is it, for example, that a human gene for making essential vitamin C became blocked by junk DNA? One answer is that our ancestors started eating fruit, so the pressure to make vitamin C “ relaxed’’ and the gene became unnecessary. By this reasoning early humans then became addicted to fruit, and any gene that helped them to find it was selected for.
Evidence suggested that the brain is so plastic that, like genes, it can be changed by relaxing selection pressure. Our understanding of human cognitive development is still fragmented and confused, however. We have lots of proposed causes and effects, and hypotheses to explain them. Yet the potential pay-off makes answers worth searching for. If we know where the human mind came from and that changed it, perhaps we can gauge where it is going. Finding those answers will take all the ingenuity the modern human mind can muster.
1.The questions presented in the first paragraph( ).
2.The scientists find the proxy to be ( ).
3.According to Renfrew's paradox, the transition from 60 000 to 10 000 years age suggests that ( ).
4.From the example illustrating the relation between culture and biology, we might conclude that ( ).
5.Speaking of the human mind, the author would say that( ).
问题1选项
A.seen to have no answers whatever
B.are intended to dig for ancient human minds
C.are not scientific enough to be answered here
D.are raised to explore the evolution of human appearance
问题2选项
A.the role of culture
B.the passage of time
C.the structure of a skull
D.the biological makeup of the brain
问题3选项
A.human civilization came too late
B.the hardware retained biologically static
C.it took so long for the software to evolve
D.there existed an interaction between gene and environment
问题4选项
A.the mental development has not been exclusively biological
B.the brain and culture have not developed at the same pace
C.the theory of natural selection applies to human evolution
D.vitamin C contributes to the development of the brain
问题5选项
A.its cognitive development is extremely slow
B.to know its past is to understand its future
C.its biological evolution is hard to predict
D.as the brain develops, so as the mind
第1题:B
第2题:A
第3题:C
第4题:A
第5题:B
第1题:
【选项释义】
The questions presented in the first paragraph ____. 第一段提出的问题是____。
A. seem to have no answers whatever A. 似乎没有任何答案
B. are intended to dig for ancient human minds B. 是为了挖掘远古人类的思想
C. are not scientific enough to be answered here C. 不够科学,在这里不能回答
D. are raised to explore the evolution of human appearance D. 为了探索人类外貌的进化
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据出处提示词the first paragraph与题干信息可定位到第一段“但更深层的问题呢?早期人类会说话吗?他们有自我意识吗?他们有信仰吗?”提出的问题,这些问题是为了引出下文第二段“回答这些问题是将考古学和神经科学结合在一起的新兴领域的重点。它旨在描绘人类认知能力的发展。”也就是为了挖掘远古人类的思想。因此选B。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“似乎没有任何答案”,第二段提到“这样的问题似乎超出了科学的范围。不是这样的。回答这些问题是将考古学和神经科学结合在一起的新兴领域的重点。它旨在描绘人类认知能力的发展。”否定了这些问题超出了科学的范围,因此并没有说是没有任何答案的,该选项属于反向干扰;
C选项“不够科学,在这里不能回答”,第二段提到“这样的问题似乎超出了科学的范围。不是这样的。回答这些问题是将考古学和神经科学结合在一起的新兴领域的重点。它旨在描绘人类认知能力的发展。”说明这些问题并没有超出科学范围,该选项属于反向干扰;
D选项“为了探索人类外貌的进化”,文中提到“它旨在描绘人类认知能力的发展”,而不是为了探索人类外貌的进化,该选项属于无中生有。
第2题:
【选项释义】
The scientists find the proxy to be ____. 科学家们发现替代物是____。
A. the role of culture A. 文化所扮演的角色
B. the passage of time B. 时间的流逝
C. the structure of a skull C. 头骨的结构
D. the biological makeup of the brain D. 大脑的生物组成
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息词proxy可定位到第二段最后一句“接下来的任务是找到几千年来保持不变的替代物的关键特征和行为。”接下来在第三段首句提到“这项努力的最有趣的方面是梳理文化的角色作为一种力量在我们心理能力的进化作用”,也就是说替代物就是作为一种文化角色。因此选A。
【干扰项排除】
B选项“时间的流逝”,文中没有提及,该选项属于无中生有;
C选项“头骨的结构”,文中提到“例如,头骨并不能表明它的主人是否有语言能力。”,只是用头骨举例说明头骨不代表具有语言能力,而不是说头骨是替代物,替代物指的是文化因素;
D选项“大脑的生物组成”,文章第二段最后一句提到“几十年来,大脑的发育一直被视为完全由生物学决定的”,但是并不是题目问的替代物,替代物指的是上文中的文化角色。该选项属于张冠李戴。
第3题:
【选项释义】
According to Renfrew’s paradox, the transition from 60 000 to 10 000 years age suggests that ____. 根据伦弗鲁的悖论,从6万岁到1万岁的转变表明____。
A. human civilization came too late A. 人类文明来得太晚了
B. the hardware retained biologically static B. 硬件保持了生物静态
C.it took so long for the software to evolve C. 软件的发展花了很长时间
D. there existed an interaction between gene and environment D. 基因和环境之间存在相互作用
【考查点】事实细节题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到第四段最后一句“伦弗鲁的悖论是,如果硬件已经到位,为什么人类花了这么长时间才开始改变世界?”以及第五段第一句“他的回答是,软件,即文化的开发需要很长时间。”也就是说软件的发展花了很长时间。因此选C。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“人类文明来得太晚了”,伦弗鲁的悖论没有体现,该选项属于无中生有;
B选项“硬件保持了生物静态”,文章没有提到硬件保持生物静态这个观点,该选项属于无中生有;
D选项“基因和环境之间存在相互作用”,从6万岁到1万岁的转变没有表明这两者之间的作用,该选项属于无中生有。
第4题:
【选项释义】
From the example illustrating the relation between culture and biology, we might conclude that ____. 从说明文化和生物学关系的例子中,我们可以得出____。
A. the mental development has not been exclusively biological A. 智力的发展并不完全是生物学的
B. the brain and culture have not developed at the same pace B. 大脑和文化没有以同样的速度发展
C. the theory of natural selection applies to human evolution C. 自然选择理论适用于人类进化
D. vitamin C contributes to the development of the brain D. 维生素C有助于大脑的发育
【考查点】推理判断题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到第三段最后一句“几十年来,大脑的发育一直被视为完全由生物学决定的。但这正日益受到挑战。”以及倒数第二段第一句“文化有时以令人惊讶的方式通过改变自然选择来改变生物学。”由此可推断人类心智的发展并不完全是生物学上的,还有文化上的。因此A选项正确。
【干扰项排除】
B选项“大脑和文化没有以同样的速度发展”,文中没有体现,该选项属于无中生有;
C选项“自然选择理论适用于人类进化”,文中说的是“文化还通过改变自然选择来改变生物学”,并没有说自然选择理论适用于人类进化,该选项属于过度推断;
D选项“维生素C有助于大脑的发育”,文中说到“人类制造必需维生素C的基因是如何被垃圾DNA阻断的”,并没有说维生素C有助于大脑发育,该选项属于过度推断。
第5题:
【选项释义】
Speaking of the human mind, the author would say that ____. 说到人类的思想,作者会说____。
A. its cognitive development is extremely slow A. 它的认知发展非常缓慢
B. to know its past is to understand its future B. 了解它的过去就是了解它的未来
C. its biological evolution is hard to predict C. 它的生物进化很难预测
D. as the brain develops, so as the mind D. 随着大脑的发展,思维也在发展
【考查点】事实细节题。
【解题思路】根据题干信息可定位到最后一段倒数第二句“如果我们知道人类的思维从何而来,并由此改变了它,也许我们就能判断它将走向何方。”也就是说了解了过去就能了解未来。因此选B选项。
【干扰项排除】
A选项“它的认知发展非常缓慢”,文中没有提到人类思想的认知发展缓慢,而是提到“我们对人类认知发展的理解仍然支离破碎”,该选项属于过度推断;
C选项“它的生物进化很难预测”,文中说“如果我们知道人类的思维从何而来,并由此改变了它,也许我们就能判断它将走向何方。”因此应该是能够预测未来的,该选项属于反向干扰;
D选项“随着大脑的发展,思维也在发展”,文中没有提及,属于无中生有。
【参考译文】
考古学可以告诉我们很多关于几万年前人类面貌和生活方式的信息。但更深层次的问题呢?早期人类会说话吗?他们有自我意识思考的能力吗?他们有信仰吗?
这些问题似乎超出了科学的范畴。其实不然。回答这些问题是一个新兴领域的重点,它将考古学和神经科学结合在一起。它旨在描绘人类认知能力的发展历程。要做到这一点并不容易。例如,一个头骨并不能说明它的主人是否会说话。因此,我们的任务是找到几千年来保持不变的关键特征和行为的替代物。
也许这项工作最吸引人的地方在于找出文化在智力进化过程中的作用。几十年来,大脑的发育一直被认为完全是生物性的。但这种观点正日益受到挑战。
剑桥大学考古学家科林·伦弗鲁称之为“智人的矛盾”。有证据表明,在过去的6万年里,人类基因组以及大脑几乎没有发生变化。然而,直到大约1万年前,人类的行为才发生了深刻的变化:人们定居在村庄里,并建造了神庙。伦弗鲁的悖论是,既然硬件已经就位,为什么人类要花这么长时间才开始改变世界?
他的答案是,软件——文化——需要很长时间才能发展起来。特别是,在这段时间里,人类在物体和符号中赋予了意义。这些意义通过世世代代的社会互动而形成,通过教育而传承,并储存在儿童的神经元连接中。
文化还通过改变自然选择来改变生物学,有时其方式令人惊讶。例如,人类制造必需维生素C的基因怎么会被垃圾DNA阻断呢?一种答案是,我们的祖先开始吃水果,因此制造维生素C的压力“放松”了,该基因就变得没有必要了。根据这一推理,早期人类开始对水果上瘾,任何帮助他们找到水果的基因都会被选中。
有证据表明,大脑的可塑性很强,就像基因一样,可以通过放松选择压力来改变。然而,我们对人类认知发展的理解仍然是支离破碎和混乱的。我们提出了许多原因和影响,以及解释它们的假说。然而,潜在的回报使我们值得去寻找答案。如果我们知道人类思维从何而来,又因何而改变,或许我们就能判断出人类思维的发展方向。寻找这些答案将需要现代人类头脑所能发挥的所有聪明才智。